Category Specific Impairments in Recognition and Naming

Category Specific Impairments in Recognition and Naming Category specific impairments in recognition and naming: fact or not? - Question: What’s black and white and looks like a horse? Answer: Hmmmmm†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..a black and white horse? Question: What do you call a guy who can’t tell the difference between an apple and a barn? Answer: Uhhhh.†¦ what’s the name for a thing with two legs, two arms and a head and, well, they look familiar†¦ they are, like, everywhere†¦ oh, I give up†¦ - Introduction to a Both Sides of an Issue In the above riddles the answers may seem strikingly obvious almost anyone. That is, anyone except what is termed â€Å"semantic impairments† in which there is a marked disability of the individual to pair up the meaning of what they see (visual semantic disorders), hear (auditory semantic disorders) or even touch (tactile semantic disorders) with the ability to identify the object. This represents essentially a disconnection between what a person knows and what they can readily express. As there are numerous specific documented cases such as those studied in Capitani, Laiacona, Mahon Caramazza’s review of 79 patients for the purpose of assessing the ‘division’ line of the impairment with regards to specific semantic categories such as â€Å"animate/living† and â€Å"inanimate/artifact†-type items (Capitani, Laiacona, Mahon, Caramazza 2003, p.213). In a different setting, Tyler and Moss present the interesting case of â€Å"DrO†, a 61-year old male who suffered particular deficits with regard to abstract words (i.e., love, hope, trust vs. concrete words such as bird, cup, etc.) following a cerebro-vascular incident. This study thoroughly details a number of testing procedures to compare his abilities to a group of peers as well as significant data in regards to his perceptual acuities such as hearing and vision. In their investigation, these utilize DrO as a literal test bed against the various theories regarding ‘traditional’ category-specific deficit disorders and the way that words and ideas might be encoded into memory. In the end, though DrO looks like a â€Å"classic† case of category-specific deficit, the researcher conclude that it is more likely to due an auditory ‘input’ problem in which they endorse the model proposed by Plaut Shallice in which concrete words are posited to ha ve greater semantic features, that is, they are easier to ‘grab on to’, and thus typically evidence faster recall and recognition (Tyler Moss, 1997, p. 315). Though it seems clear that cases exist which exhibit the phenomena of category-specific disorders, as the above example of the case of DrO indicates, things may not always be what they seem as it is not necessarily the memory that is at fault but more likely the ‘connections’ that allow one to have full mastery of the information stored in one’s own brain. In Support of Category Specific Disorders†¦ To begin, one must understand that the brain is essentially a storage bin of some sort for intangible inputs and outputs. The real trick of the matter is to know the nature of the bins†¦ specifically, how are they divided and how do they function? What is the hierarchy or taxonomy of stored sensory information? Are experiences broken down into the different sensory components? Is it stored chronologically? Most of these eclipse the current state of knowledge yet, by carefully observing the output, an idea can be formed about how the system might work. It is by these means that the idea of a category-specific impairment came to be when researchers noted, in ‘normal’ subjects, a difference in picture identification between natural objects and other artifacts suggesting that memories were stored or accessed according to some categorical hierarchy (Humphreys, Price Riddoch, 1999, p.118). Issues such as these manifest themselves in the classic ‘naming difficultyâ €™ tests such as the patient who was presented with a picture of celery and responded, â€Å"†¦it is green and you have it as a main course†¦ I dip it in salt†. This type of response, in which the subject demonstrated extensive knowledge about the object, was heard numerous times as the issue of category-specific impairment certainly seemed to be a logical explanation that fit the theory of memory in which data is separated and stored in logical â€Å"bins† to retrieve on cue later (Humphreys, Price Riddoch, 1999, p.122). Operating under the assumption that such a disorder exists, one interesting aspect that the categories while logically infinite seem to limit themselves to a comparatively very few key groups: biological categories (possibly subdivided into ‘animals’), food (often fruits vegetables) and artifact-type items with musical instruments a popular sub-category (Capitani, et al. 2003, pp. 225, 235-244). In terms of the type of impairment reflecting the proposed model, the most frequently occurring impairment has exhibits a disability to retrieve information related to the properties of an object or its associative knowledge of the item in a given category (Capitani, et al. 2003, pp. 228-229). One potential rationale for the division of categories is the within-category similarity of items. For example, categories such as â€Å"musical instruments† or â€Å"animals† have a greater perceived degree of within group similarity than categories such as â€Å"jewelryâ⠂¬  or â€Å"beverages†. Accordingly, this same justification can be utilized to rationalize the breakdown of particularly large heterogeneous categories such as â€Å"animate/living† (Sartori Lombardi, 2004, pp. 441-442, 446). Additional insights are provided when one observes impairments in items that have both â€Å"functional† and â€Å"perceptual† qualities such as would be the case in which deficits were observed in both musical instruments and living objects, thus defying the heretofore idea that deficits were limited to semantic ‘categories’. Based upon these findings, it has been hypothesized that the perspective of perceptual attributes are primary memory sorting parameters and then category-specific attributes (i.e., living vs. non-living) play a potential secondary role (Devline et al. 1998, pp. 77-78). Also, the idea that categories such as â€Å"living things† are stored/recalled by perceptual attributes while inanimate objects are stored/recalled by â€Å"functional† attributes, thereby establishing a fit for perceptual and functional priorities (Berndt, 2003 , p. 101). A popular understanding of the brain is that functions are laid out ‘topographically’ such that differing item attributes are focused in different physical locations in the cortex. Though it may seem overly simplistic, there is research to support a topographical model as evidenced by imaging studies that have demonstrated a different location of activity for living versus non-living items (Humphreys Riddoch, 2003, p. 263). Consistent with the topographical view is the â€Å"sensory/functional theory† one of the early hypothesis on how memory ‘works’ with regard to category-specific impairments. According to this theory, experiential data is organized in the brain by sensory modality and, secondly, that the primary differentiation in stimuli is determined by its sensory or perceptual properties and by its functional attributes (Caramazza Shelton, 1998, p. 4). Despite some support, a problem with these models occurs in the cases of non-focal, widely distributed legions such as those produced by Alzheimer’s or Herpes simplex encephalitis patients have produced the same type of category-specific deficit as would be expected with a highly localized lesion (Devline et al. 1998, p. 78). In attempting to explain cases from this theoretical perspective, category-specific disorder cases similar to DrO in which the problem was believed to be an ‘input’ or ‘processing’ failure, a key factor is that the impairment should not be mode-specific in that the issue should reside at the â€Å"semantic† node from which all inputs and outputs pass. That being the case, for a case to be a ‘real’ category-specific disorder, the problem should be isolated to instances in which the stimulus is presented not just in a solely audible or visual form (Caramazza Shelton, 1998, p. 13). Explaining Things Based on the existence of category-specific disorder, Humphreys and Riddoch began to seek to postulate a model that would explain the myriad complexities of both normal and deviate cases. Extending from the information presented previously on the division of categories, researchers suggest that perceptual and functional memory associations are recalled by correlated perceptual features. For example, â€Å"has a trunk† is likely to be highly correlated with an elephant whereas â€Å"has four legs†, while quite accurate, does not exude the same strength as the previous descriptor (Sartori Lombardi, 2004, p. 439; Humphreys Riddoch, 2003, p.265). This model is referred to as the â€Å"distributed semantics† model as a consequence of the features of memory being stored in numerous ‘places’. Taking this model a step further, Humphrey and Riddoch proffer the Hierarchical Interactive Theory (HIT) the allows the use of a flexible (but fairly standard) metho d of categorization by individual. In this model, there is a hierarch of processing levels that include, â€Å"the structural description system through to the semantic representations [functional attributes]†¦ or names†. With such a structure, one the means by which it differs from the distributed semantics or other models is that is acknowledges ‘up-front’ that processing can occur at level rather than a fixed ‘processing spot’ (Humphreys Riddoch, 2003, pp.266-267). In summary, though memory is, at best, only a partially understood concept, the existence of disorders such as category-specific impairments provide researchers with both a challenge and the key to solving a portion of the puzzle. By understanding the dynamics of what can happen when the system is ‘working right’, one has the opportunity observe the differences. Works Consulted Capatani, E., Laiacona, M., Mahon, B. Caramazza,A. (2003). What are the Facts of Semantic Category-Specific Deficits? A Critical Review of the Clinical Evidence. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 20 (3,4,5,6), 213-261. Caramazza, A. Shelton, J. (1998). Domain-Specific Knowledge Systems in the Brain: The Animate-Inanimate Distinction. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10 (1), 1-34. Devlin, J., Gonnerman, L., Andersen., E., Seidenberg, M. (1998). Category-Spefic Semantic Deficits in Focal and Widespread Brain Damage: A Computational Account. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10 (1), 77-94. Humphreys, G., Riddoch, M. (2003). A Case Series Analysis of â€Å"Category-Specific† Deficits of Living Things: The HIT Account. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 20 (3,4,5,6), 263-306. Humphreys, G., Price, C. Riddoch, M. (1999). From Objects to Names: A Cognitive Neuroscience Approach. Psychological Research, (62), pp. 118-130. Sartori, G. Lombardi, L. (2004). Semantic Relevance and Semantic Disorders. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16 (3), 439-452. Sloan-Berndt, R. (2003). Lexical-Semantic Aspects of Language Disorders. In K. Heilman E. Valenstein (Eds.), Clinical Neuroscience, 4th Edition. (pp. 92-107). New York, New York: Oxford University Press. Tyler, L. Moss, H. (1997). Imageability and Category-specificity. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 14 (2), 293-318.

Use Of Literary Elements :: essays research papers

Use of Literary Elements There are many important elements to The Catcher in the Rye but there are two that stand out from the rest by a great margin. These elements of the novel are the message that the book gives to reader as well as the style of writing that J.D. Salinger uses while writing the book. The messages can be seen clearly and are very important to the book, but they are not an original theme for a book. What does set the ideas in this book apart from other books with the same theme is the writing style that Salinger uses in the book; this writing style is called stream of consciousness writing. Stream of consciousness writing is a type of writing that is not typically used in books because of its well defined limits. These limits are that when using stream of consciousness narration, the story line is required to revolve around one and only one main character if the writing is to be effective. With S. of C. writing it is also required that the author develop the main character extremely well into a very believable person both emotionally and physically through thoughts and actions. To write an effective book in this writing style an author must be exceptionally talented, and thankfully Mr. Salinger is just that. The S. of C. writing style is used effectively with the character of Holden Caulfield in The Catcher in the Rye because the story line Mr. Salinger developed follows Holden specifically as well as the fact that the subject matter of the book is one of an personal nature. The ideas in the book are presented as thoughts of Holden through out the story. These topics include the fakeness of the world, as well as the rebellion against the world that many teenagers have. Holden does not like the phonies in the world and constantly voices his opinion about it as well. The rebellion against the world in not a conscious thing that Holden does but it is apparent in the story line of the book. An example of this rebellion is the constant use of profanity in the book. Salinger makes good use of the constant profanity to show this rebellion but because of HoldenÕs character it is not out of context. Because Holden is upper-middle class and educated he used profanity to exemplify points that he is trying to make, not because he is swearing out of anger.

Belonging to a community Essay

Belonging to a community or a group has a significant impact on an individual sense of belonging. Belonging is a concept that provides confidence and support to individuals who are able to connect to people or places. Individuals that belong to a community or a group have portrayed that there are significant impact that do affect a individual own sense of acceptance, which could lead to a better wellbeing. However not belonging to a community or a group has negative impact on the individual as presented by Peter Skrynecki of Immigrant chronicles, J.D. Salinger Catcher in the Rye and The related text. Belonging is established by individuals who are able to search for a place to belong, not realising that it is the perceptions and attitudes, not the place that allow us to belong. Immigrant chronicles by Peter Skrynecki, the poems â€Å"St Patrick’s College†, and â€Å"In the folk museum†, have displayed a significant impact on an individual’s sense of belong ing. In St Patrick’s college, Peter Skrzynecki explores the effects of schooling on an individual sense of belonging and self. Time is a deciding factor that strengthens an individual connection to a community or a group creating a stronger sense of belonging to the community or group. However for the persona demonstrated by Peter Skynecki in St Patrick College, the persona has â€Å"for eight years† caught the 414 bus; however he describes himself â€Å"like a foreign tourist†. The effect of simile â€Å"like a foreign† shows disconnection to a path that he has travelled on for eight years, displaying the significance of the disconnection and still able to say that the persona takes the bus â€Å"like a foreign tourist†, even though the persona has been on this path for eight years, he takes the bus like it’s his first time on this bus as the persona states he is a foreigner. The repetition of â€Å"For eight years† is to further stress the amount of time that passed and that the persona has still not been able to make a sense of connection, to the school or to the bus and learning the religion there at a superficial level. The school religion for the persona was that he â€Å"Could say the Lord’s Prayer/ In Latin, all in one breath. The connotation â€Å"all in one breath†, displays the persona lack of sincerity, portraying he learnt it at a superficial level. The use of enjambment â€Å"Could say the lord’s prayer/In Latin, all in one breath, emphasis he doesn’t understand Latin, even if he could do it in one breath. The enjambment suggests that the persona can say it, but doesn’t understand it. The emphasis of â€Å"In Latin† portrays irony to  him â€Å"I forgot my first Polish word† in Feliks Skrynecki. Belonging to a community or a group has a significant impact on an individual sense of belonging as displayed by St Patrick College. People can find their own sense of identity by belonging to a group, as represented by the persona in St Patrick College, as he was a part of his school community. Even though the persona state that he did not feel that he belong to his school the irony is that the school became part of his thought, highlighting the fact that belongin g to a community or a group has a significant impact on an individual sense of belonging. In the folk museum the persona perceives his lack of belonging in the setting of the museum and its surrounding as the poet Peter Skrynecki explores concept of alienation in a more general way. The poem â€Å"In the folk museum† is an abstract look at the persona’s emotional turmoil as well as the persona choosing not wanting to belong to the museum. This is portrayed by the enjambment of the two lines â€Å" To remind me of a past/Which isn’t mine†, makes the emphasis fall heavily on â€Å"Which isn’t†, highlighting the persona’s alienation for the words and the objects in the museum. Not being able to establish a connection with your heritage, affects a person’s sense of belonging as understanding one’s self is the key to belonging, relating to Feliks Skrynecki as the persona does not understand why â€Å"His Polish friends/ Always shook hands too violently†, as that is the father culture. The persona’s sw ift exit â€Å"And I leave without wanting a final look† brings the use of connection on â€Å"final†, displaying how he is not belonging as the persona chose not to look back. The alliteration, â€Å"without wanting† creates a sense of the persona’s firm decision not to belong in this place. Yet, â€Å"At the door the old woman’s hand/ Touches mine†. The syntax causes the stress to fall heavily on the word, â€Å"Touches†, highlighting the woman’s attempt to make some connection. This human touch contrasts to the earlier â€Å"cold† touch of the â€Å"grey clay bottle†. The persona’s earlier comparison of the woman with the cold bottle is undercut by her attempt at warmth. This touch does not imply relationship though, as is seen in the final question, â€Å"Would you please sign the Visitors’ Book?† The polite modality â€Å"Would you please† and the word, â€Å"Visitors† emphasises that the persona is an outsider in this place. The concept of belonging is that we choose whether to belong or not, and that not belonging does have a significant impact on an individual sense of belonging as displayed in the  folk museum, as the persona was not able to make connection to the old woman or to the relics displayed in the museum. Holden Caulfield in Catcher in the Rye displays that belonging to a community or a group has a significant impact on an individual sense of belonging as emphasis by Holden Caulfield has displayed a similar contrast to the Immigrant chronicle of St Patrick’s College and Folk museum through similar setting and representing concept of belonging. Holden Caulfield has trouble establishing his belonging at school, Pencey Prep. When Holden states that he did not want to join the football field match even though everyone was there. â€Å"You could see the whole field from there, and you could see the two teams bashing each other all over the place.† This show Holden choice to not go, he chooses to alienate himself from the crowd, watching people instead of connecting with them. He rejects the conformity of the system: the manufactured school spirit that expects everyone to support the school football team. In contrast to Peter Skynecki â€Å"The Folk Museum’ when Holden was at the museum, he is able to establish a connection with the relics through his memory. The view of never changing is something that is not possible as people will have to grow up and as a result will have different goals. â€Å"The best thing, though, in that museum was that everything always stayed right where it was†. It shows that Holden chooses to belong to the museum as he is able to remember that there are no changes to the museum. The sense of familiarity of where you know where everything goes shows his sense of belonging. Holden reason for being able to connect to the museum is that it never changes. The museum is like a sanctuary for Holden, as time does not seem to affect the museum. In conclusion by showing individuals that do not belong to a community or a group, it depicts that it is inherent for people to realise the significant impact on individual that do find their own sense of belonging, and are able to belong to a community or a group, as presented by Peter Skrynecki of Immigrant chronicles, J.D. Salinger Catcher in the Rye and The related text.

At the nightclub Free Essay Example, 1000 words

The volume of the music inside was extremely loud, and I was unable to hear anything else except for some yelling of people to be heard. I found the music was very interesting as it wasn’t repetitive. There were so many different kinds of music played by the DJ such as hip-hop, pop, disco and pop-rock. Club guards were everywhere. They looked scary because of their size and were wearing black suits. Some were even holding weapons. They were using scouts to make sure everything was safe in the dark, and that there was no underage drinking. Some more steps forward, I faced the bar. It was decorated with dim lighting and different-colored chairs. There were many people sitting, but not as much I thought. I sat on one of the bars chairs, and I ordered bottled water. While I was sitting and watching people around, there was something that drew my attention. People seemed to know each other. Perhaps it was because they always come to the club. Folks kept smiling and trying to start conversation each other. We will write a custom essay sample on At the nightclub or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now On my left, there was a girl sitting alone on one of the bars chairs. I assumed that she was a foreigner too because of skin color was brown. She was wearing a black short dress and carrying a red fancy bag. She was talking to someone on her phone, and shouting. It seemed that she was nervous, because she kept yelling and she didnt smile. I was not able to hear what she was saying, because of the loud music. I was looking at her because she was the only person in the club who was not smiling, and not enjoying her time. After she finished her call, she looked at me because I was alone too. A few minutes later, she asked me, â€Å" Did you come alone? † I said, "Yes, I just came by myself. What about you? " She said "I came with my boyfriend to celebrate his birthday, but he forgot his ID, so they didnt let him come in" I said " Ohh†¦. sorry about that, and Happy Birthday to him! " She smiled and replied, "Its ok. Thank you so much" I said "You are welcome. " She asked me, "Why did you come alone? " I answered, " This my first visit to a night club in America, and I wanted to see it by myself. † She exclaimed, "Really? !!! Hope you enjoy it! " I said, "Yes I like it so much, specially the music. Its awesome! " She finally said, " Nice to meet you. † I replied, "Nice to meet you too". While I was talking to the girl, I was listening to different kinds of music. The voice was coming from upstairs. I decided to figure that out, and went directly to the stairs.